Alexander III of Macedon, universally known as Alexander the Great (356 BCE – 323 BCE), was a king, conqueror, and visionary leader who transformed the ancient world. Over the course of a decade, he created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to India, encompassing Egypt, Persia, and Central Asia. His military genius, ambition, and leadership have made him a subject of admiration and scrutiny for millennia.

However, Alexander’s significance extends beyond his conquests. His personal life, particularly his relationships with men such as Hephaestion and Bagoas, highlights the fluidity of sexuality in ancient Greece. While historical sources often sanitize or obscure these relationships, modern interpretations recognize Alexander as an icon of LGBTQ+ history, illustrating how love and desire transcended the heteronormative constraints of later eras.

Early Life and Education

Born in Pella, the capital of Macedon, on 20/21 July 356 BCE, Alexander was the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias, a princess of Epirus. Olympias instilled in her son a sense of divine destiny, claiming descent from Achilles and Zeus. These beliefs shaped Alexander’s self-perception as a man chosen by the gods to achieve greatness.

Education Under Aristotle

At the age of 13, Alexander began his education under the tutelage of Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of the ancient world. Aristotle introduced Alexander to a broad range of subjects, including philosophy, science, ethics, politics, and literature. The works of Homer, particularly the Iliad, profoundly influenced Alexander, who saw himself as a modern Achilles.

Aristotle’s teachings also reinforced Greek ethnocentrism, particularly toward Persians, which would influence Alexander’s early campaigns. However, as Alexander adopted Persian customs later in life, his relationship with Aristotle cooled, reflecting the king’s evolving worldview.

Alexander’s Ascension and Early Reign

At the age of 20, Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne following the assassination of his father, Philip II. Despite his youth, he quickly consolidated power by eliminating rivals and subduing rebellious territories.

Consolidation of Greece

In 336 BCE, Alexander led a swift and brutal campaign to reaffirm Macedonian dominance over Greece. His destruction of Thebes, after its rebellion, served as a warning to other city-states. By 335 BCE, Alexander had secured the allegiance of the League of Corinth, positioning himself as the leader of a unified Greek force against Persia.

Military Conquests

The Persian Campaigns

In 334 BCE, Alexander launched his invasion of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, fulfilling his father’s ambition to avenge Persian aggression during the Greco-Persian Wars. Over the next decade, Alexander systematically dismantled Persian power.

Key Battles

1. Battle of the Granicus (334 BCE):
   • Alexander’s first major victory against Persian forces, solidifying his foothold in Asia Minor.
2. Battle of Issus (333 BCE):
   • A decisive confrontation with Darius III, the Persian king, resulting in the capture of Darius’s family.
3. Siege of Tyre (332 BCE):
   • A demonstration of Alexander’s military ingenuity, capturing the heavily fortified island city.
4. Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE):
   • The final blow to the Persian Empire, leading to the capture of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis.

The Egyptian Campaign

In 332 BCE, Alexander entered Egypt, where he was hailed as a liberator from Persian rule. He founded the city of Alexandria, which would become a cultural and intellectual hub. At the Siwa Oasis, he was proclaimed the son of Amun, cementing his divine status.

Indian Campaign

In 326 BCE, Alexander crossed into India, defeating King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes River. Although victorious, his troops, exhausted by years of campaigning, refused to march further east, forcing Alexander to turn back.

Personal Relationships and LGBTQ+ Significance

Alexander’s relationships reveal a multifaceted individual whose affections transcended societal norms. His bonds with both men and women illustrate the fluidity of sexuality in ancient Greece.

Hephaestion: A Bond Beyond Friendship

Hephaestion, Alexander’s lifelong companion, general, and confidant, shared a bond with the king that many ancient sources compare to Achilles and Patroclus.

• Symbolism at Troy: During a visit to Troy in 334 BCE, Alexander and Hephaestion paid homage to the tombs of Achilles and Patroclus, explicitly aligning their relationship with these legendary lovers.
• Hephaestion’s Death: In 324 BCE, Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, devastating Alexander. The king mourned extravagantly, fasting for days, executing Hephaestion’s physician, and commissioning a grand funeral costing 10,000 talents. Alexander sought to deify Hephaestion, a request partially fulfilled when he was declared a divine hero.

Modern historians such as Robin Lane Fox and Paul Cartledge argue that their relationship likely included a romantic or physical dimension, challenging the purely platonic interpretations of earlier scholars.

Bagoas: The Persian Eunuch

Bagoas, a eunuch described as exceptionally beautiful, became one of Alexander’s closest companions. Ancient sources, including Plutarch and Quintus Curtius Rufus, detail their relationship:

• During a public celebration, Alexander openly kissed Bagoas, earning the approval of his troops. This moment underscores the cultural acceptance of same-sex relationships in Alexander’s time.

Bagoas’s influence extended beyond affection; he was a trusted member of Alexander’s entourage, accompanying him throughout his campaigns.

Marriages and Political Alliances

Alexander married three women, primarily for political purposes:

1. Roxana (Bactrian princess): Their union symbolized the integration of Macedonian and Central Asian cultures. Roxana bore Alexander two children.
2. Stateira (Daughter of Darius III): Married during the Susa Weddings, her marriage legitimized Alexander’s rule over Persia.
3. Parysatis (Daughter of Artaxerxes III): Further strengthened Alexander’s claims in Persia.

While these marriages were politically motivated, Alexander’s emotional investments were primarily with Hephaestion and Bagoas.

Bisexual Erasure and Historical Interpretation

Although ancient sources document Alexander’s relationships with men, later historians, particularly during the Victorian era, sanitized these accounts to align with heteronormative values. This bisexual erasure marginalized key aspects of Alexander’s identity, framing him as exclusively heterosexual.

Modern scholarship has reclaimed Alexander’s LGBTQ+ narrative, emphasizing his relationships with Hephaestion and Bagoas as central to understanding his life and legacy.

Death and Legacy

Death

Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE at the age of 32, under mysterious circumstances. Theories range from fever to poisoning. His death marked the beginning of the Hellenistic Era, as his empire fragmented among his generals, the Diadochi.

Cultural Impact

Alexander’s conquests facilitated the spread of Hellenistic culture, blending Greek and Eastern traditions. Cities such as Alexandria became centers of learning and innovation, shaping the ancient world.

LGBTQ+ Legacy

Alexander’s relationships challenge modern assumptions about ancient sexuality, highlighting the acceptance of same-sex love in Greek and Persian cultures. By acknowledging his bonds with Hephaestion and Bagoas, modern interpretations celebrate Alexander as an LGBTQ+ figure whose life transcends time and cultural boundaries.

References

1. Plutarch, Life of Alexander.
2. Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander.
3. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Histories of Alexander the Great.
4. Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great.
5. Paul Cartledge, Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past.
6. Mary Renault, The Nature of Alexander.